Overview of Chinese Dynasties from Xia to Qing Dynasty

 

Ancient Chinese Dynasties: Xia to Qing

Duration, Geographical Region, Political Perspective, Economy, Culture and Craft, Science and Technology and Literature of every dynasty that exist in China History.

PRE-HISTORICAL ERA

DYANSTY	PRE-HISTORICAL ERA
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	1.7M years ago – the 21st century BC, located around the Yangtze and Yellow River in Central China
DISCRIPTION	Pre-Historic times Divided into Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age. Recorded leaders were Yellow Emperor and Yao Shun. As we know for the survival of civilization river is essential, so they live are around the yellow river.
POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE	ABDICATION SYSTEM:  leaders were chosen by a system called Abdication system.
ECONOMY	Agriculture, Stock Farming, Ceramics, Silk products and the formation of social division of labors.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	The cultural heritages of the matriarchal clan society are scattered in different parts of China, highlighted by the Peiligang culture, the Cishan culture, the Yangshao culture and the Longshan culture.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	During this period developed the use of stone tools, this age is also called the Stone Age. The people used stone sickles, shovels and knives as their main agricultural tools, and made pottery by hand.
LITRATURE	CAVE WRITING:

 

                       

 1.  XIA DYANSTY 

S.NO	1
DYANSTY	XIA DYANSTY
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	(21st - 17th century BC) Western area of Henan Province and southern Shanxi Province.
DISCRIPTION	Based mainly on the ancient historical traditions, most Han Chinese generally identify themselves as descendants of the Huaxia tribe of the Xia dynastic clan. End of the Primitive Society and the beginning of the Class Society. Xia ended under the reign of Jie, a very notorious tyrannical emperor in Chinese history.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	During emperor Yu Abdication System, after Yu death his Qi introduce Hereditary system.
ECONOMY	AGRICULTURE: People lived mainly through agriculture using tools made of stone.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	There were several cultures in the Yellow River Basin. Jade Ware Bronze Vessels
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	A calendar system was devised which used both lunar and solar movements.
LITRATURE	Their oldest historical documents were written between 0 BC and 1000 BC.

 

 

 3. SHANG DYANSTY 

S.NO	2
DYANSTY	Shang
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	17th century BC - 1046 BC   Bo (in Shangqiu, Henan); Yin (in Anyang, Henan)
DISCRIPTION	Shang Dynasty was established by King Tang in 1675 BC after overthrowing the tyrannical rule of Jie, (Xia's last emperor). This dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	MONARCHY: king>worriers>Artisans>peasants>merchants>slaves
ECONOMY	Agriculture, fishing and handicraft industry
CULTURE AND CRAFT	Music and music instruments
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	Astronomy, Math, Bronze vessels, Bronze containers and chain pump for irrigation.
LITRATURE	Oracle bone

 

 

 

3. ZHOU DYANSTY 

S.NO	3
DYANSTY	4.1 Western Zhou	4.2 Eastern Zhou
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	1046 BC- 711 BC Fengjing and Haojing	771 BC – 256 BC Luoyi (today’s Luoyang)
DISCRIPTION	Shang dynasty succeeded by Zhuo Wu, Prosperous era with great developments	With the death of King You, the last king of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Eastern Zhou Dynasty began. Xuan Jiu, the son of King You, established the dynasty in 770 BC, and moved the capital to Luoyi (present-day Luoyang, Eastern Zhou Dynasty is divided into two periods: the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC - 476 BC) and the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC)
		Spring and Autumn Period	Warring States Period
		The Spring and Autumn Period was fertile time for the emergence of many philosophy, school of thought, religious ideas as small state expanded by, peaceful coexistence and fought wars.	During the Warring States Period, nobles stopped supporting the Zhou Dynasty (1046–221 BC), and Zhou's vassal states declared themselves independent from Zhou, becoming kingdoms or warring states.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Legalism and Invented the Mandate of Heaven* It is said that the ruler take order from heaven.	Multi state system, the leaders of powerful state consider as Hegemon during the time of crises of wars.	Multi State system
ECONOMY	Agriculture , Iron, Trade	Agriculture	Agriculture: using of cattle and plowing
CULTURE AND CRAFT	Etiquette, In sacrificial ceremonies, funerals, wedding ceremonies and other important events. Crafts include Iron made tools	Despite of endless wars maintained Zhou ritual culture.	Followers of different school of thoughts including, Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism. Crafts include Iron tools
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	Astronomy: celestial phenomena,  Bamboo and wooden slips
LITRATURE	Literary works on different school of thoughts	CONFUCIOUS, LAO TZE	SUN TZU: military strategic, writer of famous book “Arts of wars

 

4.QIN DYANSTY 

S.NO	4
DYANSTY	QIN DYANSTY
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	221 - 207 BC Xianyang (in today's Xianyang and Xi'an of Shaanxi)
DISCRIPTION	Qin Shi Huang was the first emperor who unified the china, after conquered the warring states. He is consider one of cruel person he also works on many projects including the great wall of china and army of terracotta.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	The end of feudalism and establishment of bureaucracy. LEGALISM: follower of legalism which believe that the peoples are bad and ruler should rule strictly.
ECONOMY	He stipulated that the round coin with square hole (Ban Liang Coin) should be the coin used in the country.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	During the Qin dynasty, Confucianism—along with all other non-Legalist philosophies, such as Daoism—were suppressed by the First Emperor; early Han dynasty emperors did the same. Legalism denounced the feudal system and encouraged severe punishments, particularly when the emperor was disobeyed.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	The Qin dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe, also invent multiplication table and irrigation
LITRATURE	Killed at least 460 scholars and burn many books, the writing was system was standardized.

 

 

5. HAN DYANSTY 

S.NO	5
DYANSTY	Han Dynasty 202 BC - 220 AD
	Western Han	Xin Dynasty	Eastern Han
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	202BC - 9 AD Chang'an (today's Xi'an)	9 - 23 AD Chang'an (today's Xi'an)	25 - 220 AD Luoyang
DISCRIPTION	The Western Han Dynasty was regarded as the first unified and powerful empire in Chinese history. It was established by Liu Bang, who became Emperor Gaozu following four years of civil war started by peasant uprisings against the despotic Qin Dynasty.	Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD), the official who claimed he had the Mandate of Heaven, ruled the Xin Dynasty (which literally means 'new dynasty'). He tried to implement far-reaching policies. Wang Mang tried to change society by abolishing slavery, redistributing the land, and issuing a new currency.	The Eastern Han Dynasty began when a member of the Han dynastic clan came to power. His dynastic name was Emperor Guangwu. When he reached maturity, various regions in the empire were in rebellion, and people were also attacking and rebelling. The goal of the first emperor was to conquer the territory and fend off the attacks. During his long reign, the Red Eyebrows were defeated and he consolidated power in the empire. He defeated Goguryeo attacks in 30 AD on the northeast border and a rebellion in Vietnam in 43 AD.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Following a mass revolt in the Qin Empire in 210 B.C. and brief control by warlord Xiang Yu, Liu Bang seized the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty in 202 B.C. Centralized government like Qin	He reforms seem strikingly modern. But there were natural disasters, and peasants revolted against him.	After death of Emperor Zhang in 88 A.D., the Han Empire was almost exclusively ruled by boys in their early teens, a circumstance that set up palace intrigue and directly led to its fall. During the emperor’s early years of rule, the power was in the hand of his mother, who leaned on her own family to keep control
ECONOMY	Han Dynasty, China was known for Silk Road trade. The merchant also pay double tax.	Economic reforms, making a socialist society. >Natural Disasters	Cai Lun pounded ingredients like bamboo, hemp, rags, fishing nets and mulberry tree bark into a pulp, mixing in water and spreading it flat. The use of paper is said to have spread quickly through the empire
CULTURE AND CRAFT	Confucianism but The Silk Road trade caused cultural changes.	Followers of Buddhism and Confucianism	Confucianism and Buddhism
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	Enhance the process of paper making, collar harness, plow	In medicine they use herbal cure, pendulum for measuring seismic waves.	papermaking, the nautical steering ship rudder, the use of negative numbers in mathematics, the raised-relief map, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere for astronomy
LITRATURE	Civil service test, from Confucius teachings.	Mathematics was advance.	Calligraphy and painting

 

 

6. THREE KINGDOM PERIOD  

S.NO	6
DYANSTY	WEI	SHU	WU
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	220 - 265 AD Luoyang	221 - 263 AD Chengdu	222 - 280 AD Jianye (today's Nanjing, Jiangsu)
DISCRIPTION	After Cao Pi took over the Wei throne from his father Cao Cao, he suppressed internal rebellions and built up his army. He forced the last emperor of the Han Dynasty to give him his throne in 220 and named his kingdom Cao Wei.	With only two emperors Liu Bei and his son Liu Chan, the reign of Kingdom of Shu was much shorter than that of the Kingdom of Wei. As for the national strength, Kingdom of Shu was the weakest of the three kingdoms.	Kingdom of Wu (229 - 280) is also named Sun Wu because the monarchs of the kingdom are mainly from the Sun family. The kingdom was consecutively ruled by four emperors and lasted for 52 years. Although it was not the strongest one among the three kingdoms (Wei, Shu and Wu) during the Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280), it has the longest history as well as the mightiest naval army.
ECONOMY	Economically, Cao Cao benefited a lot from the Tun Tian (farming done by soldiers) System. (Tax Modification) System	Shu was not merely a nation at war. During peacetime, the Shu state began many irrigation and road-building projects designed to improve the economy. Many of these public works still exist and are widely used.	Shipbuilding industry and salt industry of Wu were prosperous. Development of agriculture by appointing the farming official.
CULTURE AND CRAFT
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	hydraulic-powered, mechanical puppet theatre designed, square-pallet for irrigation of gardens	Wooden ox Compass Chain pump for irrigation	advantage of navigation
LITRATURE	Remarkable accomplishments were achieved in literature, philosophy and technique. Numerous predominant poets emerged from the Kingdom of Wei.

 

 

7. JIN DYANSTY 

S.NO	7
DYANSTY	Western Jin	Eastern Jin	Five Hus and Sixteen States
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	265 - 316 AD Luoyang	317 - 420 AD Jiankang (Nanjing, Jiangsu)	304 - 439 AD
DISCRIPTION	The Jin dynasty 晉 (265-420) was a ruling house founded by Sima Yan 司馬炎 (Emperor Wu 晉武帝, r. 265-289). The Jin were the successor dynasty of the Wei 曹魏 (220-265) in China's north, and conquered the last of the Three Kingdoms 三國 (220-280), the empire of Wu 吳 (222-280), in southern China.	Set up in 317 and ended in 420, the Eastern Jin Dynasty was successively reined by 11 emperors. Established by the last of the Western Jin and governing a limited area lying to the South of Yangtze River, this dynasty was recorded as a single dynasty in Chinese history.	'Five Hus and Sixteen States' refers to the sixteen regimes set up by five ethnic minorities in the northern area of China. This period started in the late Western Jin Dynasty (265 - 316) and ended when the Northern Wei Dynasty (386 - 535) unified the entire nation.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	A weak central government Central government to dominate the local aristocracy and to deprive of their rights on levying taxes and maintaining their own armies.	Together with the surviving ministers of the central government and the imperial family numerous landowning families of the aristocracy (tuzu 土族) from northern China	The political situation was more severe and complex in the latter phase. The social turbulence was more serious, and people suffered more hardship.
ECONOMY	Handicraft industry was greatly improved,	Handicraft industry was greatly improved,	Due to continuous warfare, the development of culture, politics and the economy was hurt badly in this area
CULTURE AND CRAFT	In that period, southern and northern culture had a chance to integrate with each other. Since the northern area of China was dominated by the so-called 'Five Hus and Sixteen States' of Chinese history.	Since the northern area of China was dominated by the so-called 'Five Hus and Sixteen States' of Chinese history. Living in the central plains, those ethnic minorities were gradually assimilated by the Han people.	Due to continuous warfare, the development of culture, politics and the economy was hurt badly in this area
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY
LITRATURE		Chinese ancient literature made great progress

 

 

 

8. Northern and Southern Dynasties DYANSTY 

S.NO
DYANSTY	Northern and Southern Dynasties
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	420 - 589 AD Pingcheng (today's Datong, Shanxi); Luoyang Jiankang (Nanjing) etc.
DISCRIPTION	Started from 386AD and ended in 589AD, the Northern and Southern Dynasties were a period when the whole nation was divided into the Northern Dynasties (386 - 581) and the Southern Dynasties (420 - 589). After the decline of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 - 420), the regime and territory of China could not avoid a fate of being split. There were four successive Southern Dynasties, and five Northern Dynasties.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Monarchy system but rapidly changing of monarchs. though an age of civil war and political chaos
ECONOMY	The Shi were powerful and successfully evaded government taxation. With a huge economic pie carved out and retained by the Shi, the central government was not able to achieve much with limited economic resource.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	Yangtze valley transformed from a backwater frontier region with less than 25% of China's population to a major cultural center of China with 40% of China's population.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	The invention of the stirrup during the earlier Jin dynasty, spur the development of heavy cavalry as a combat standard, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and cartography.
LITRATURE	In poetry, fu poetry continued to be a dominant genre, though the five-syllable form that achieved great prominence during the Tang dynasty gradually increased in popularity. In the Southern Dynasty, a type of essay known as pain wen (Chinese: 駢文), which used metered rhyme, flowery language, and classical allusions, became popular.

 

 

 

 

9. SUI DYANSTY 

S.NO	9
DYANSTY	SUI
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	581 - 618 AD Daxing (in today's Xi'an, Shaanxi); Luoyang
DISCRIPTION	For the second time in Chinese history whole nation was reunified and certain economic and political advances were achieved in the period.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Three Departments and Six Ministries was established, Hierarchical System was replaced by the Imperial Examination System.
ECONOMY	The Great Grand canal was introduced to connect northern and southern areas and have easy trade and transport.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	Buddhism was spread. Culture exchange between southern and northern part of China
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	Woodblock printing, a style of writing in which characters were carved into wood and then dipped in ink to stamp.
LITRATURE	the influence of the Non-Chinese "barbarians" in the north had simplified the phonetic system in this part of China.

 

 

10. TANG DYANSTY 

S.NO	10
DYANSTY	TANG DYANSTY
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	618 - 907 AD Changan (today's Xi'an); Luoyang
DISCRIPTION	The Tang dynasty 唐 (618-907) was the second great dynasty of Chinese history that was able to unify a vast territory, to spread its culture to the surrounding countries and to absorb and adapt the cultures of states and tribes in the neighborhood.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	He largely took over the administrative organization of the Sui. His son and successor, Emperor Taizong (r. 626-649), with the support of many competent ministers, perfected the political, jurisdictional and military administration of the empire.
ECONOMY	-Sui 隋 (581-618) emperors begun to construct a Great Canal (dayunhe 大運河) to ensure the transport of grain from the rich lower Yangtze area 長江 to the north. -City life was enriched by many temples and monasteries. -Two markets served as supply of goods and for tax income
CULTURE AND CRAFT	The religion Buddhism spread, in its Chinese form, to Korea and Japan. But at the same time again rose as a semi-religious instrument of state doctrine.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	In the field of astronomy, we find a handful of people that worked on calculating the paths of (sun and) moon, the ecliptic and the movement of different constellations. Agronomy, hydraulic engineering and traffic (for taxes, food and commodities).
LITRATURE	The mathematician Wang Xitong 王希通 wrote his book Qigu suanjing 緝古算經 where he explains the solution of third-degree equations (sanci fangchengshi 三次方程式). The corpus of the Ten Mathematical Classics (Shibu suanjing 十部算經) was compiled (see also Chinese books on mathematics).

 

 

 

 

 

11. SONG DYANSTY 

S.NO	11
DYANSTY	SOUTHERN SONG	NORTHERN SONG
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	960 - 1127 AD Bianjing (Kaifeng)	1127 - 1279 AD Lin'an (Hangzhou)
DISCRIPTION	The Song dynasty was one of the great dynasties ruling over China. Although the Song only ruled over a relatively small area compared to the HAN (206 BCE-220 CE), the Tang  the Qing dynasties, their age is seen as a time of economic, cultural and social prosperity and often coined the Chinese "renaissance".	After the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty (960 - 1127), the Jin army captured many members of the imperial family, except Zhao Gou, the younger brother of the last emperor. In 1127, the Jin dynasty withdrew its troops from Kaifeng (capital of the Northern Song) and enthroned a puppet emperor. Due to the people's resentment of his betrayal of the Song Dynasty, he soon yielded the throne to Zhao Gou. However, due to continuous attacks by the Jin army, the newly-installed regime had to flee to Lin'an (currently Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province). In 1131, Lin'an was officially established as the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, with Zhao Gou as its first emperor - Emperor Gaozong.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu) and the Founding of the Song Transformation of the Political System Song China and the Liao Empire The Regency of Empress Liu The Councellorship of Lü Yijian Song China and the Western Xia Empire The Southern Frontier The Qingli Reforms New Policies under Wang Anshi The Age of Retrogression Politics under Emperor Huizong The Downfall of the Northern Song The Reign of Emperor Gaozong.	The autocratic government of the Song should make it impossible for generals to challenge the power of the emperor. Thus, the Song state was a highly civilian governmental system. The Song emperors even refused to spend too much efforts in military campaigns against their northern neighbors.
ECONOMY	-Another important metal was copper and its respective alloys (tong ), for the casting of coins (qian ) -Textile industry -Spinning, weaving and dyeing were important economic activities	Commercial cities such as Hangzhou grew so large and rich that they astounded Marco Polo. Agricultural Success In the Northern Song Empire, the farmers mainly cultivated wheat and millet. PORCLIEN: Song porcelain was highly prized in the West. TRADE; Silk, Tea and porcelain were the two most valuable exports.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	The famous painting called Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival was drawn by the great painter Zhang Zeduan during this period.	The arts and theater grew increasingly learned and refined. Classical opera became very popular among the upper classes and the general population as well, even though the actors spoke ancient classical Chinese and not the vernacular languages of the people.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	WEAPONARY: A very important innovation in war technology was the invention of black powder. -The world's earliest typography was invented by a man named Bi Sheng.	-MOVEABLE TYPE OF PRONTING -Advanced waterworks
LITRATURE	The 'ci' poem, a new expressive form of Chinese ancient literature	-The Neo-Confucian Classics were the Four Books and Five Classics -The Analects of Confucius, pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples; -Mencius, political dialogues attributed to Mencius; -The Doctrine of the Mean, a guide to perfecting oneself; -The Great Learning, a book about education, self-cultivation and ‘the way' (Dao).

 

 

 

12. YUAN DYANSTY 

S.NO	12
DYANSTY	YUAN DYNASTY
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	1279- 1368 AD THE REIGN OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE, CAPITAL DADU (PRESENT DAY BEIJING)
DISCRIPTION	The Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) was China's first foreign-led dynasty, in between the Chinese Song and Ming dynasties. It was established by Kublai Khan, leader of the vast Mongol Empire, and fell into internal rebellion after it lost touch with its Mongol roots.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	CLASS SYSTEM: first Mongol then Muslims. The Mongols, though they were originally nomads, herders, and hunters, ruled the empire successfully in the first few decades. This amazing dynasty made some major changes in the region's government and culture. One big change during Kublai's reign was that foreigners became the rulers and administrators. Han ethnic people stayed at the bottom among the four-class system during the reign of the Mongols.
ECONOMY	Kublai Khan issued paper banknotes called chao (钞). This was a big innovation in the banking and monetary system. Use paper money as the main currency.
CULTURE AND CRAFT	The Mongols had their own religious belief called Shamanism. However, this religion did not spread. Instead, both the Mongols and some indigenous people started accepting Islam.
SICIENCE AND TECHNOLGY	Medicine, printing technology, and gunpowder warfare.
LITRATURE	In the genres of fictional novels and theater, major works in the vernacular language were written.

 

 

13. MING DYANSTY 

S.NO	13
DYANSTY	MING DYANSTY
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	1368 - 1644 AD Yingtian (today's Nanjing, Jiangsu); Shuntian (today's Beijing)
DISCRIPTION	The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was the last ethnic Chinese dynasty, sandwiched between two foreign ones: the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and the Manchurian Qing Dynasty. It was the fourth longest Chinese dynasty, lasting for 276 years. It began with a decline in the Mongol Empire and uniting of ethnic Chinese resistance; flourished with a growth in foreign trade, art, and literature; and ended with natural disasters, war, and internal rebellion, which weakened the Chinese ready for defeat by the united Manchurian forces.
POLTICAL PERSPECTIVE	Eunuch demoted: In earlier dynasties, eunuchs had been involved in internal politics and were responsible for a lot of the court's decadence. To limit their power and ensure the centralization of authority, eunuchs were not allowed to engage in official affairs and had to be illiterate.
ECONOMY	Feudal society began to show the declining trend while the capitalism started to originate. Agriculture Handicraft industry
CULTURE AND CRAFTS	The culture developed rapidly, especially in literature. Three of the four great classical masterpieces of Chinese literature - Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms were written in during this period. Besides, another two well-known novels - Peony Pavilion and The Plum in the Golden Vase were also excellent works in that period.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY	The military technology was relatively advanced in that period. A kind of gun called 'huochong gun' and powerful artillery were invented in the late period.
LITRATURE	Wang Yangming's new thoughts called 'philosophy of the mind' formed a new thinking wave which helped shape a new social trend.

 

 

 

14. QING DYANSTY 

S.NO	14
DURATION +GEOGRPHICAL REGION	1644 - 1911 AD Beijing
DYNASTY	QING DYNASTY
DISCRIPTION	The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) was the last Chinese dynasty, and the longest dynasty ruled by foreigners (the Manchus from Manchuria, northeast of the Great Wall). The Qing Dynasty had the most overseas contact, though it was mostly resisted. China glories in the prosperity of the Qing Golden Age, but remembers with shame the forced trade and unequal treaties later in the Qing era. It was followed by the Republic of China era (1912–1947)
POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE	At the beginning, the Qing court carried out a series of policies to revive the social economy and alleviate the class contradiction. In politics, following Ming's ruling pattern, the imperial rulers continued to strengthen the centralized system. Meanwhile, the court resumed the 'Sheng' administrative system that established by Yuan.
ECONOMY	The court more carefully controlled commerce and industry and monopolized important industries, reverting to the economic policies of earlier dynasties. Emperor Kangxi only allowed foreign businessman to trade with Chinese in four cities: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Songjian, and Ningbo
CULTURE AND CRAFT	This hairstyle was humiliating. Dorgon said, "Keep your hair, lose your head; keep your head, cut your hair." Tens of thousands who resisted were massacred.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY	The lack of modern education. The empire concentrated on Imperial Examinations, studying ancient philosophical and religious texts.
LITRATURE	In the middle of their dynastic era, when the empire was at its height, one of the four great classic novels was written called Dream of the Red Chamber. See more on The History of Chinese Literature.